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Denomination:Commemorative
Year of Issue:2019
Number of Pieces:1
Time Period:2000s
Collection:Tower of London
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Country/Region of Manufacture:United Kingdom
Country of Origin:Great Britain
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D-Day 75th Anniversary1944 – 2019 Uncirculated Gold Plated Coin to Commemoration the 75th Anniversary of D-Day One Side has an image of World Leaders at the Celebration which includes Queen Elizabeth II, King Charles III, Donald Trump, Emmanuel Macron, Theresa May and Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau It has the words “Operation Overlord” which was codename for D-Day and “Normandy Landings”It has the image of a plane and the words “D-Day 75 1944 -2019” The back has the flags of the USA – Stars & Stripes, the UKs Union Jack, France & Canadawith the words “D-Day 75 1944 2019 Anniversary” The gold plated coin is 40mm in diameter, weighs about 1 oz. The coin you will receive would not have been removed from its air-tight acrylic coin holder In Excellent Condition Would make an Excellent Gift or Collectible Keepsake Souvenir of Iconic Event. I have a lot of World War II items on Ebay so why not > Check out my other items! 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Thanks for Looking and Best of Luck with the Bidding!!I have sold items to coutries such as Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * American Samoa (US) * Andorra * Angola * Anguilla (GB) * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Aruba (NL) * Australia * Austria * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belgium * Belize * Benin * Bermuda (GB) * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bonaire (NL) * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Bouvet Island (NO) * Brazil * British Indian Ocean Territory (GB) * British Virgin Islands (GB) * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Canada * Cape Verde * Cayman Islands (GB) * Central African Republic * Chad * Chile * China * Christmas Island (AU) * Cocos Islands (AU) * Colombia * Comoros * Congo * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Cook Islands (NZ) * Coral Sea Islands Territory (AU) * Costa Rica * Croatia * Cuba * Curaçao (NL) * Cyprus * Czech Republic * Denmark * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * East Timor * 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Lahore, Kinshasa, Miami, Ho Chi Minh City, Madrid, Tianjin, Kuala Lumpur, Toronto, Milan, Shenyang, Dallas, Fort Worth, Boston, Belo Horizonte, Khartoum, Riyadh, Singapore, Washington, Detroit, Barcelona,, Houston, Athens, Berlin, Sydney, Atlanta, Guadalajara, San Francisco, Oakland, Montreal, Monterey, Melbourne, Ankara, Recife, Phoenix/Mesa, Durban, Porto Alegre, Dalian, Jeddah, Seattle, Cape Town, San Diego, Fortaleza, Curitiba, Rome, Naples, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Tel Aviv, Birmingham, Frankfurt, Lisbon, Manchester, San Juan, Katowice, Tashkent, Fukuoka, Baku, Sumqayit, St. Louis, Baltimore, Sapporo, Tampa, St. Petersburg, Taichung, Warsaw, Denver, Cologne, Bonn, Hamburg, Dubai, Pretoria, Vancouver, Beirut, Budapest, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Campinas, Harare, Brasilia, Kuwait, Munich, Portland, Brussels, Vienna, San Jose, Damman , Copenhagen, Brisbane, Riverside, San Bernardino, Cincinnati and Accra How the Normandy Invasion Happened: Infographic Overview Written and fact-checked by , Normandy Invasion: Overview infographic. D-Day. World War II. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc./Kenny Chmielewski This infographic provides an overview of the Normandy Invasion, also called Operation Overlord or D-Day, which was launched on June 6, 1944, during World War II. The largest seaborne invasion ever, the operation involved the simultaneous landing of U.S., British, and Canadian forces on five separate beaches in Normandy, France, which was defended by German forces. The infographic includes a timeline of actions that the Allies carried out early on the morning of June 6 to prepare the way for the landings that followed. It also provides a chart to aid in visualizing the relative sizes of the Allies’ national infantry contingents and the proportion of each that became casualties. Finally, the infographic presents a map showing the Allies’ embarkation areas, invasion routes, and landing areas and the dispositions of German forces in northern France. Operational phases As the infographic notes, the Normandy Invasion was implemented under the overall direction of U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, commander of the Anglo-American Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF). The landings were originally to take place on May 1, but they were postponed until June 5 because of difficulties in assembling landing craft. As the new D-Day (the projected first day of the invasion) approached and troops began to embark for the crossing, bad weather set in, threatening dangerous landing conditions. After tense debate, Eisenhower decided on a 24-hour delay, which required the recall of ships already at sea. Finally, on the morning of June 5, Eisenhower, having been assured by his chief meteorologist of a break in the weather, announced, “O.K. We’ll go.” Within hours an armada of vessels began to leave English ports. The infographic divides the Allied operation early on D-Day into five phases. Phase 1: At midnight some 23,400 British and U.S. airborne troops, flown from airfields in southern England, begin to be dropped behind the westernmost and easternmost landing areas in Normandy to secure the exits from the beaches and otherwise prepare the way for the seaborne forces to come. Phase 2: At 1:00 the Allies, having created an entire phantom army through spurious radio transmissions, begin a fake invasion of the Pas-de-Calais, an area of France about 150 miles (250 km) northeast of the Normandy landing areas. Airborne deception measures present German radar stations with the illusion of an invasion fleet crossing the Channel narrows while radar blackout measures disguise the real transit to Normandy. Phase 3: At 3:00 Allied aircraft begin bombing German defenses in the landing areas. Phase 4: At 5:00 Allied cruisers and battleships begin bombarding German defenses in the landing areas. Phase 5: At about 6:30 seaborne Allied troops begin hitting the beaches in Normandy. Number of Allied troops and vehicles The infographic provides a chart to aid in visualizing the relative sizes of the Allies’ national landing contingents and of the Allied airborne forces on D-Day. The chart displays four blocks of soldier icons, one block each for the U.S., British, and Canadian landing contingents and one for the airborne forces. Each icon represents 500 men. According to the chart, a total of some 129,400 Allied troops landed in Normandy on D-Day. Of that number, the U.S. and Britain each contributed some 54,000 men and Canada some 21,400. Britain and the U.S. together provided the 23,400 airborne troops, 4,000 of whom rode in on gliders while the rest parachuted in. The total number of casualties suffered by the Allies on the beaches that day was 4,930, of which 2,700 casualties were American, 1,030 British, and 1,200 Canadian. Proportionately, the airborne troops suffered the most casualties—about 4,000. In addition, the infographic tallies the buildup of Allied forces in Normandy after D-Day. By June 11 approximately 326,000 troops, 54,000 vehicles, and 104,000 tons of supplies had landed. By the end of the month some 858,000 troops and 150,000 vehicles had landed. In a box beside those figures, the infographic gives the approximate number of vehicles used on D-Day: 3,000 landing craft, 2,500 other watercraft, 500 naval vessels, 20,000 land vehicles, and 13,000 aircraft. Significant places The infographic provides a map of the Normandy Invasion on June 6, 1944. Inset is a second, smaller map situating northern France within western Europe. The main map shows the English Channel, which divides the United Kingdom, to the north, from northern France, to the south and southeast. Embarkation areas and landing beaches The Allied embarkation areas in southern England are shaded orange. Within those areas, the map labels ports whence Allied troops were ferried across the Channel to the landing beaches in Normandy. Those beaches, southeast of Cherbourg on the Cotentin Peninsula in the west and north of Bayeux and Caen farther east, are also shaded orange. Altogether, according to the infographic, the invasion area was about 50 miles (80 km) wide. Routes of airborne forces Dashed dark orange arrows show the routes that Allied airborne troops took from England to Normandy to secure the flanks of the invasion area. Each arrow is labeled with an infantry unit’s name and objective. Those troops were carried in C-47 transport planes or towed behind the planes in CG-4 or Horsa assault gliders. On the right flank, at the base of the Cotentin Peninsula, the U.S. 82nd and 101st airborne divisions were dropped to secure the exits from, and block German access to, the beach code-named Utah. A separate dashed arrow points from England, across the Channel, to an area on the Norman coast just east of the easternmost landing beach, code-named Sword. This was the route the British 6th Airborne Division took to secure the left flank, which involved seizing key bridges over the Caen Canal and Orne River northeast of Caen. Routes of seaborne forces A series of solid dark orange arrows on the map shows the routes that various U.S., British, and Canadian infantry divisions took from English ports, primarily along the English Channel, to their assigned landing beaches. From west to east, those beaches were code-named Utah, assigned to the U.S. 4th Division (embarked at Plymouth, Dartmouth, and Torquay); Omaha, to the U.S. 1st and 29th divisions (embarked at Falmouth, Fowey, Plymouth, Portland, and Poole); Gold, to the British 50th Division (embarked at Southampton); Juno, to the Canadian 3rd Division (embarked at Portsmouth); and Sword, to the British 3rd Division (embarked at Newhaven). The Americans constituted the U.S. First Army, the British and Canadians the British Second Army. Together the two armies formed the 21st Army Group. German defenders In addition, the map locates the German army units defending northern France. All of those forces came under the direction of OB West, or Oberbefehlshaber West (Commander in Chief West; with headquarters at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, northeast of Paris). OB West oversaw Army Group C, in southern France (not shown), and Army Group B (with headquarters at La Roche Guyon, on the Seine River between Paris and Rouen), which defended northern France and the Low Countries. Army Group B included the Seventh and Fifteenth armies. The Seventh Army (with headquarters at Le Mans) included the 77th Division, between Saint-Malo and Avranches, and most of the German divisions in or near the Allies’ invasion area in Normandy—the 709th, 243rd, 91st, and 352nd, between Cherbourg and Caen, as well as the 21st Panzer, southwest of Caen. The Fifteenth Army (with headquarters at Tourcoing, near Lille) was spread between the invasion area’s left flank, at the Orne River, and the Netherlands. Its divisions closest to the invasion area included the 716th, between Caen and the Orne estuary, and the 346th and 84th, between Le Havre and Dieppe, as well as the 12th SS Panzer, between the Orne and the Seine, and the Panzer Lehr, northeast of Alençon. Other divisions of the Fifteenth Army included the 245th, 348th, and 2nd Panzer, between Dieppe and Amiens, and the 85th, 344th, 49th, 47th, and 18th, between the mouth of the Somme River and Dunkirk. The latter three divisions were concentrated in Pas-de-Calais, which the Allies had led the Germans to believe would be the likeliest invasion area. Leaders from 16 countries joined Queen Elizabeth to commemorate the 75th anniversary of D-Day — here’s what the historic gathering looked like Dylan Martinez and Steve Holland, Reuters Jun 5, 2019, 11:18 PM World War II D-Day veterans ceremony WWII D-Day veterans at an event to commemorate the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. REUTERS/Toby Melville World leaders gathered in England on Wednesday to commemorate the D-Day landings ahead of their 75th anniversary. Queen Elizabeth was joined by President Donald Trump, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, and others for the event. Visit Business Insider’s homepage for more stories. Top editors give you the stories you want — delivered right to your inbox each weekday. Email address By clicking ‘Sign up’, you agree to receive marketing emails from Insider as well as other partner offers and accept our Terms of Service and Privacy Policy. PORTSMOUTH, England (Reuters) – Queen Elizabeth was joined by world leaders including Donald Trump and Angela Merkel to mark the 75th anniversary of D-Day, paying personal tribute to the veterans of the largest seaborne invasion in history which helped bring World War II to an end. The queen, Prince Charles, presidents and prime ministers rose to applaud veterans, their coats heavy with medals, as they stood on a giant stage beside a guard of honor after a film of the Normandy landings was shown. “The wartime generation — my generation — is resilient, and I am delighted to be with you in Portsmouth today,” the 93-year-old queen, wearing bright pink, said. “The heroism, courage and sacrifice of those who lost their lives will never be forgotten. It is with humility and pleasure, on behalf of the entire country — indeed the whole free world — that I say to you all: thank you.” Prime Minister Theresa May was joined for the commemorative events in Portsmouth by US President Trump, who is on the final day of a state visit to Britain, and his wife, Melania. Queen Elizabeth Prince Charles Emmanuel Macron Angela Merkel Donald Melania Trump Justin Trudeau World War II D-Day WWII French President Emmanuel Macron, Britain’s Prince Charles and Queen Elizabeth, President Donald Trump and first lady Melania Trump, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte, and Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau at an event to commemorate the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. REUTERS/Carlos Barria Trump read a prayer given by Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944: “The enemy is strong. He may hurl back our forces but we shall return again and again; and we know that by Thy grace, and by the righteousness of our cause, our sons will triumph.” Donald Trump D-Day World War II WWII Franklin Roosevelt FDR President Donald Trump on stage during the event to commemorate the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. REUTERS/Carlos Barria French President Emmanuel Macron, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison, German Chancellor Merkel, and leaders and senior figures from 10 other countries also attended. In the early hours of June 6, 1944, more than 150,000 allied troops set off from Portsmouth and the surrounding area to begin the air, sea and land attack on Normandy that ultimately led to the liberation of western Europe from the Nazi regime. Justin Trudeau Canada D-Day WWII World War II Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau on stage during an event to commemorate the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. REUTERS/Toby Melville By the time of the Normandy landings, Soviet forces had been fighting Germany in the east for almost three years and Kremlin chief Josef Stalin had urged British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to open a second front as far back as August 1942. The invasion, codenamed Operation Overlord and commanded by US Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, remains the largest amphibious assault in history and involved almost 7,000 ships and landing craft along a 50-mile stretch of the French coast. D-Day World War II WWII People at the event for the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. REUTERS/Carlos Barria Shortly after midnight, thousands of paratroopers were dropped. Then came the naval bombardment of German positions overlooking the shore. Then the infantry arrived on the beaches. Mostly American, British and Canadian men, some just boys, waded ashore as German soldiers tried to kill them with machine guns and artillery. Survivors say the sea was red with blood and the air boiling with the thunder of explosions. Thousands were killed on both sides. Line upon line of white crosses honor the dead in cemeteries across northern France. Even the codenames of the sectors of the invasion — Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno and Sword — can draw tears from veterans. Justin Trudeau Canada D-Day WWII World War II Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau on stage during an event to commemorate the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. REUTERS/Toby Melville “I was terrified. I think everyone was,” said John Jenkins, 99, a veteran who landed at Gold Beach. “You never forget your comrades because we were all in it together.” The commemorations featured an hour-long performance recounting the wartime events and a flypast by historic, military aircraft. Afterwards, world leaders met veterans of the landings. D-Day World War II WWII cake A D-Day-themed cake at an event for the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. Jeff J Mitchell/Pool via REUTERS The queen, President Trump, Melania and Prince Charles shook hands with half a dozen veterans were waiting for them, exchanging a few words and asking them about their stories from D-Day. Sixteen countries attended the commemorations: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Poland, Slovakia, the UK and the US. D-Day World War II WWII A man dressed up for an event for the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. REUTERS/Hannah McKay They agreed a proclamation to “ensure that the unimaginable horror of these years is never repeated.” Merkel said Germany’s liberation from National Socialism brought about something “of which we can be proud.” Donald Melania Trump Angela Merkel D-Day World War II WWII Justin Trudeau President Donald Trump and first lady Melania, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte, and Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau participate in an event to commemorate the 75th anniversary of D-Day, in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. REUTERS/Carlos Barria “Reconciliation, and unity within Europe, but also the entire post-war order, which brought us peace, for more than seven decades so far,” she said. “That I can be here as German Chancellor, that together we can stand for peace and freedom — that is a gift from history that we must cherish and preserve.” On Wednesday evening, some 300 veterans who took part on D-Day, all now older than 90, will leave Portsmouth on a specially commissioned ship, MV Boudicca, and retrace their 1944 journey across the English Channel, accompanied by Royal Navy vessels and a lone wartime Spitfire fighter plane. D-Day veteran World War II WWII Veteran Bertie Billet at the D-Day 75 National Commemorative event in Portsmouth, UK, June 5, 2019. Chris Jackson/Pool via Reuters World War II by country Article Talk Read Edit View history Tools From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Allies before the attack on Pearl Harbor Allies that joined after the attack on Pearl Harbor or after 1942 Axis powers Neutral powers World War II Navigation CampaignsCountriesEquipment TimelineOutlineListsHistoriography PortalCategoryBibliography vte Almost every country in the world participated in World War II. Most were neutral at the beginning, but only a relatively few nations remained neutral to the end. The Second World War pitted two alliances against each other, the Axis powers and the Allied powers; the Soviet Union served 34 million men and women, Germany 18 million, the U.S 16 million, Japan 9 million, and Great Britain 6 million. It is estimated that in total, 127 million people were mobilised during the war.[1] It is generally estimated that a total of 72 million people died, with the lowest estimate being 40 million dead and the highest estimate being 90 million dead.[2] The leading Axis powers were Nazi Germany, the Empire of Japan and the Kingdom of Italy; while the British Empire, the United States and the Soviet Union were the “Big Three” Allied powers.[3] The countries involved in or affected by World War II are listed here alphabetically, with a description of their role in the conflict. Afghanistan Main article: Kingdom of Afghanistan Under Prime Minister Mohammad Hashim Khan, Afghanistan stayed neutral. The kingdom had close relations with all three Axis powers and had agreements with them for assistance with infrastructure and trade.[4] Despite British pressure, Afghanistan maintained friendly relations with the Axis during the war. In 1940, the Afghanistan legation in Berlin asked whether Germany would cede land in British India to Afghanistan if it should win the war; specifically, the king and minister wanted to acquire all the ethnic Pashtun land between the Durand Line and the Indus River.[5] Despite this stated goal, Afghanistan stayed out of the war, neither suffering an attack nor attacking any other country. In 1941, Western press reported that Amanullah Khan, a former king who lost his throne in a civil war in the 1920s, was working as an agent for Nazi Germany in Berlin.[6] It is believed he was involved in plans to regain his throne with Axis help.[7] Following the Axis loss in Stalingrad in 1943, the plans cooled off and were never executed.[8] Albania See also: German occupation of Albania and Albanian resistance during World War II Albanian partisans, with their leader Enver Hoxha in the center, after the liberation of Tirana on November 17, 1944. After the Italian invasion of Albania in April 1939, 100,000 Italian soldiers and 11,000 Italian colonists who wanted to integrate Albania into the Italian Empire settled in the country. Initially the Albanian Fascist Party received support from the population, mainly because of the unification of Kosovo and other Albanian-populated territories with Albania proper after the conquest of Yugoslavia and Greece by the Axis in Spring 1941. Benito Mussolini boasted in May 1941 to a group of Albanian fascists that he had achieved the Greater Albania long wanted by the Tirana nationalists. On June 22, 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa and on June 28 Albania also declared war on the USSR. In October 1941, small Albanian Communist groups established an Albanian Communist Party in Tirana of 130 members under the leadership of Enver Hoxha. In mid-1942, however, party leaders increased their popularity by calling young people to fight for the liberation of their country from Italy. In September 1942, the party organized the Albanian National Anti-Fascist Front, from a number of resistance groups, including several that were strongly anti-communist. They assembled a National Liberation Army. Germany occupied Albania in September 1943, dropping paratroopers into Tirana before the Albanian guerrillas could take the capital, and soon drove the guerrillas into the hills and to the south. Berlin subsequently announced it would recognize the independence of a neutral Albania and organized an Albanian government, police, and military. Many Balli Kombëtar units and leaders collaborated. The partisans entirely liberated Albania from German occupation on November 29, 1944. The Albanian partisans also helped in the liberation of Kosovo and parts of Yugoslavia. Algeria Main article: Military history of Algeria Anti-aircraft fire during a German air raid on Free French-held Algiers, 1943. After the Fall of France, Algeria, along with France’s other possessions in Africa, were under the control of Nazi Germany and Vichy France. Next, the British Empire launched a squadron of the Royal Navy to attack the port of Mers-El-Kébir, near Oran because it was full of French warships. On November 8, 1942, the Allies launched a major offensive codenamed Operation Torch. Afterwards, the Italians bombed Algiers. Then, the Allies attempted to capture the cities of Oran and Algiers by naval landing but the French troops and navy were in large quantity. So, they first took Morocco and then Algeria along the way, establishing the liberation of northern Africa. During the War, large numbers of both Muslim and European Algerians served with the French Army. Algerian troops particularly distinguished themselves in the French Expeditionary Corps under General Juin during the Italian campaign of 1943 and in Operation Dragoon, the Allied invasion of southern France in 1944. Andorra Main article: History of Andorra Andorra remained politically neutral throughout the war but was used as a smuggling route by Axis Vichy French and Axis-aligned Spanish personnel. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Further information: History of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan SDF forces enter Piazza Italia after the capture of Tripoli, 1943. The condominium of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was at war from the time of the United Kingdom’s declaration in 1939. Fighting reached Sudan in 1940 when Italy entered the war. Sudan had a long border with Italian East Africa and therefore became the Northern Front in the East African Campaign. Italian forces captured the railway junction at Kassala and other towns and raided as far north as Port Sudan.[9] Units of the Sudan Defence Force (SDF) were combined with the Indian 1st Horse to form Gazelle Force, which helped drive the Italian forces out of Sudanese territory in January 1941.[10] Another SDF battalion was part of Gideon Force, which invaded Ethiopia, while others took part in the invasion of Eritrea. The SDF took part in the Western Desert Campaign along the northern Sudanese border with Libya, supplying the Free French and then the Long Range Desert Group stationed there.[11] Antarctica This section is an excerpt from Antarctica during World War II.[edit] Personnel of Operation Tabarin unload supplies at Port Lockroy, 1944. International competition extended to the continent of Antarctica during the World War II era, though the region saw no combat. During the prelude to war, Nazi Germany organised the 1938 Third German Antarctic Expedition to preempt Norway’s claim to Queen Maud Land.[12] The expedition served as the basis for a new German claim, called New Swabia.[13] A year later, the United States Antarctic Service Expedition established two bases, which operated for two years before being abandoned.[14] Responding to these encroachments, and taking advantage of Europe’s wartime turmoil, the nearby nations of Chile and Argentina made their own claims. In 1940 Chile proclaimed the Chilean Antarctic Territory in areas already claimed by Britain, while Argentina proclaimed Argentine Antarctica in 1943 in an overlapping area. In response to the activities of Germany, Chile, Argentina, and the United States, Britain launched Operation Tabarin in 1943. Its objective was to establish a permanent presence and assert Britain’s claim to the Falkland Islands Dependencies,[15] as well as to deny use of the area to the Kriegsmarine, which was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points. There was also a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the Falkland Islands. The expedition under Lieutenant James Marr[16] left the Falklands on 29 January 1944. Bases were established on Deception Island, the coast of Graham Land, and at Hope Bay. The research begun by Operation Tabarin continued in subsequent years, ultimately becoming the British Antarctic Survey.[17] In the postwar period, competition continued among Antarctica’s claimant powers, as well as the United States and Soviet Union. In the late 1950s, this competition would gave way to a cooperative international framework with the International Geophysical Year and the Antarctic Treaty. Antigua and Barbuda See § Caribbean Islands Argentina Main articles: Argentina during World War II and Latin America during World War II Before the start of World War II in 1939, Argentina had maintained a long tradition of neutrality regarding European wars, which had been upheld and defended by all major political parties since the 19th century. One of the main reasons for this policy was related to Argentina’s economic position as one of the world’s leading exporters of foodstuffs and agricultural products, to Europe in general and to the United Kingdom in particular.[18] Thus, initially, even though the government of Argentina was sympathetic to the Allies[19] and provided economic assistance to the United Kingdom,[20] the country’s political tradition of neutralism prevailed. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent American declaration of war upon Japan, American pressure for Argentine entry into the war begun to increase.[19] Relations worsened further following a military coup in 1943, as the plotters were accused of holding Axis sympathies.[20] Because of strong divisions and internal disputes between members of the Argentine military, the country would continue to remain neutral, even after American sanctions.[20] However, Argentina eventually gave in to the Allies’ pressure, broke relations with the Axis powers on January 26, 1944,[20] and declared war on March 27, 1945.[20] Over 4,000 Argentine volunteers fought on the Allied side.[21] Azerbaijan §§ Soviet Union and Armenian SSR (Armenia) Australia Main articles: Military history of Australia during World War II and Australian home front during World War II Workers assemble rudders for Bristol Beaufort bombers in Melbourne, 1943. Australia was among the first countries to announce it was at war with Germany, on 3 September 1939. The Prime Minister, Robert Menzies considered that the British declaration legally bound Australia, and he announced a state of war between Australia and Germany as a direct consequence of the British declaration.[22] More than one million Australian men served in the war out of a total population of around seven million. Although it was ill-prepared for war, the Australian government soon dispatched squadrons and personnel to serve with the Royal Air Force. The Royal Australian Navy (RAN) commenced operations against Italy in June 1940. Later that year the Australian Army entered the North Africa campaign and fought in Greece. German submarines and raiding ships operated in Australian waters throughout the war. After the outbreak of hostilities with Japan in late 1941, Japanese aircraft launched a bombing attack on Darwin in February, and smaller Air raids on Australia, 1942–43. For the remainder of the war, the Australian war effort was concentrated in south-east Asia and the South West Pacific Area: they were involved from January 1942 in Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and the Australian territory of New Guinea. During mid-1942 Militia troops fought the Kokoda Track campaign, and the New Guinea campaign came to occupy the attention of most of the Australian armed forces until 1945. Papua and New Guinea Main article: New Guinea Campaign An Australian soldier is aided by a Papuan orderly near Buna in December 1942. What is now Papua New Guinea consisted of two territories under Australian administration, the Territories of Papua and New Guinea. Upon the outbreak of the Second World War, the New Guinea Volunteer Rifles were organized as a militia unit of white expatriates in the New Guinea territory, while the bulk of the Australian military was deployed in the Mediterranean. Japanese forces invaded beginning in January 1942 with the Battle of Rabaul; in the following months Japan occupied most of the Territory of New Guinea. From late 1942 until the Japanese surrender, the Allies, mostly Australian and US forces, cleared the Japanese first from Papua, then the Territory of New Guinea, and finally from Dutch West New Guinea. The campaign resulted in heavy losses for Japan. Disease and starvation claimed more Japanese lives than combat. Allied forces effectively besieged enemy garrisons, cutting them off from food and medical supplies.[23] During the war, civil administration in both territories ceased and the whole area was placed under martial law. Only a single battalion, the Papuan Infantry Battalion, was ever recruited from the native Papuan population. Many other people were recruited to bring supplies up to the front and carry injured Australian troops: the so-called Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels. Civil government was restored after the war, and in 1949 the two territories were united as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea. See also Pacific Islands. Austria Austria was part of Germany during World War II. See Germany and its subsection Austria. Azerbaijan See Soviet Union and Azerbaijan SSR. Bahamas As part of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement of 1940, the United States Navy established a base and airstrip at George Town on Great Exuma.[24] Some Bahamians enlisted in the Caribbean Regiment and other British units. The Duke of Windsor, the former King Edward VIII, was installed as Governor of the Bahamas in August 1940. It is widely believed that the Duke and Duchess sympathised with fascism before and during the war, and were moved to the Bahamas to minimise their opportunities to act on those feelings.[25] The Duke was praised for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands, although he was as contemptuous of the Bahamians as he was of most non-white peoples of the Empire.[26] He was also praised for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in June 1942, when there was a “full-scale riot”,[27] even though he blamed the trouble on “mischief makers – communists” and “men of Central European Jewish descent”.[28] The Duke resigned the post on 16 March 1945.[29] In April 1942 the United Kingdom asked Canada to provide military support in Nassau, in part to protect the Duke. A company of the Veterans Guard of Canada served in the Bahamas, followed by a company of the Pictou Highlanders. The Canadian garrison left Nassau in 1946[30] See also Caribbean Islands. Bahrain Main article: History of Bahrain The Sheikh of Bahrain declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939. On October 19, 1940, four Italian planes bombed Bahrain to destroy oil refineries supplying the Allies.[31] The raid caused minimal damage to the oil refineries but made the Allies increase the defense around Bahrain (being a UK protectorate). Bangladesh Bangladesh was part of British India during World War II. See this article’s section on India and Bengal famine of 1943. Belarus See Soviet Union and Byelorussian SSR. Belgium Free Belgian soldiers training in Wales, 1942 Main article: Belgium in World War II In 1936 Belgium had declared its neutrality in the event of war in Europe.[32] Nevertheless, in May 1940, Germany launched a surprise attack during its wider blitzkrieg against France.[33] Belgian forces resisted the invasion in the Battle of Belgium for 18 days, but the Belgian army and its commander, King Leopold III, surrendered on 28 May 1940.[34] A few Belgian soldiers escaped via Dunkirk, but the King and most of the army were made prisoners of war. Many remained imprisoned until the end of World War II.[35] Germany occupied Belgium and installed a military government. The occupiers imposed harsh taxes and strict rationing.[36] Hundreds of thousands of Belgians laboured in Germany during the war, most as part of Germany’s forced labour programme.[37] Around 25,000 Jews and Romani were deported during the Holocaust in Belgium, most passing through the Mechelen transit camp. Nearly all lost their lives in the Nazi death camps.[38] A number of Nazi collaborationist groups operated in Flanders and Wallonia;[39] other Belgians collaborated through the national administration[40] and the Flemish and Walloon Legions of the Waffen-SS.[41] In opposition, the Belgian Resistance comprised numerous groups that fought against the occupation in various ways. Groupe G ran a successful campaign of sabotage against railroads, while other groups worked to protect Jewish people from deportation or help downed Allied airmen escape from the country.[42] Belgium’s elected government fled the occupation, relocating to France and then London, where it established the Belgian government in exile under Hubert Pierlot and the Free Belgian Forces under Victor van Strydonck de Burkel.[43] Belgian forces participated in the D-Day campaign, the Italian Campaign, the landings on Walcheren Island, and the Battle of the Atlantic.[44][45] Britain and the United States targeted occupied Belgium with strategic bombing, which caused many civilian casualties.[46] The Liberation of Belgium began in September 1944 when Allied forces, including Free Belgians, entered the country.[47] German troops counterattacked in December with the Ardennes Offensive; the failure of that offensive forced all German troops out of Belgium by February 1945.[48] German V-bomb attacks continued until the end of the war.[49] Postwar Belgium joined NATO and the Benelux customs union, while accusations of collaboration by King Leopold sparked the political crisis called the Royal Question.[50] Belgian Congo Main article: Belgian Congo in World War II Force Publique soldiers leaving the Congo for the East African Campaign. The Belgian Colonial Empire stayed loyal to the Allies: after Belgium’s surrender, both the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi remained under the authority of the Belgian government in exile and the Free Belgian Forces. The Congo played an important role as an economic asset, producing large amounts of raw materials for the Allies, notably gold and uranium. The nuclear bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were made with uranium from Congolese mines. Congolese troops also fought as the Force Publique, which saw combat against Italian forces in the East African Campaign. Medical troops were also brought on the east-Asian front. The colonial government’s demands on the Congolese population provoked strikes, riots and other forms of resistance. These were repressed, often violently, by the colonial authorities. The Congo’s comparative prosperity during the conflict led to a wave of post-war immigration from Belgium, bringing the white population to 100,000 by 1950, as well as a period of industrialisation and urbanisation that continued throughout the 1950s. Rwanda-Urundi Belgium’s mandate of Ruanda-Urundi consisted of the modern nations of Rwanda and Burundi. There, the war years were marked by the Ruzagayura famine. Though initially caused by a drought, the famine’s effects were made worse by the Belgian war effort as authorities tried to send agricultural produce to the Congo to support the Allies. The famine killed between a fifth and a third of the colony’s population and displaced many thousands more.[51] Benin See French West Africa. Bhutan Although Bhutan was under British suzerainty, it remained independent; and under the reign of Jigme Wangchuck the kingdom continued to maintain almost complete isolation from the outside world with only limited relations with the British Raj in India. Despite his policy of neutrality, upon the outbreak of the war the king sent the government of India a gift of 100,000 rupees as a gesture of friendship.[52] Bolivia Main articles: History of Bolivia (1920–64) and Latin America during World War II Bolivia was one of many Latin American countries to declare war on Germany later on in the war, joining the Allies on 7 April 1943. It was one of the three countries to declare war in 1943, the others being Chile and Colombia. Shortly after war was declared, the President of Bolivia, Enrique Peñaranda, was overthrown in a coup. The new ruler, Gualberto Villarroel, had fascist and anti-Semitic leanings, but foreign pressure[clarification needed] compelled him to remain at peace and to suppress his more extreme pro-Nazi supporters. Bolivian mines supplied needed tin to the Allies, but with no coastline, the landlocked country did not send troops or warplanes overseas.[53] P-47s carried the “Senta a Pua!” emblem as nose art along with the national insignia of Brazil Bosnia and Herzegovina See Yugoslavia. Brazil See also: Brazilian Expeditionary Force and Vargas Era § World War II Brazilian poster announcing the declaration of war, November 10, 1943 Brazil was under its second civilian-military dictatorship led by Getúlio Vargas, maintaining its official neutrality until 1941, when it allowed US forces to use bases to patrol the South Atlantic. The United States built several airfields on Brazilian soil with the understanding that shortly after the war ended, they would be turned over to Brazil.[54] In the wake of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the declarations of war of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy against the US, in January 1942 at the 9th Pan-American Conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil helped to influence other American countries to cut diplomatic relations with Axis Powers. In retaliation, Germany and Italy extended their submarine warfare against them. In the first half of 1942 Axis submarines sank Brazilian merchant ships, and Brazilian naval forces chased and attacked these submarines. When seven merchant ships were sunk by the German Submarine U-507, Vargas decided to make official the state of war against Germany and Italy.[55] Northeastern Brazil hosted at Natal the largest single American air base outside of its own territory, and at Recife, the U.S. 4th Fleet Headquarter under Admiral Ingram’s command. The air base in Natal gave support to the North Africa campaign, and a route for USAAF airplanes to fly to India and China.[56][57] Brazilian naval forces in the Battle of the Atlantic helped US and British Navies to patrol the South and Central Atlantic Ocean, combating Axis U-boats and raiders. In 1943, Allied naval forces sunk most of the Axis submarines which were active in the West of the South Atlantic, the U-199 among them. After this intense campaign, the South Atlantic became a lost battle to Germany.[58][59][60] After two years of preparation, a complete infantry Division (about 25,000 troops, called the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (BEF)) was sent in July 1944 to fight in the Italian campaign. They fought in the last two stages of the Italian campaign: the slow breakdown of the Gothic Line and the final Allied offensive in that front.[61][62] British Borneo Main articles: Battle of Borneo (1941–42) and Japanese occupation of British Borneo Japanese paratroopers on a transport to Borneo, December 1941. Borneo was divided into five territories: four in the north under the British – Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan island, and British North Borneo – and the remainder and bulk of the island to the south under the jurisdiction of the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). The Japanese invasion plan called for the British territories to be taken and held by the Imperial Japanese Army and the southern Dutch territory to be taken and held by the Imperial Japanese Navy.[63] On 8 December 1941, the Brooke government instructed that the oilfields at Miri and Seria and refinery at Lutong be quickly demolished. At dawn on 16 December, two Japanese landing units secured Miri and Seria with little resistance from British forces. A few hours later, Lutong was captured. British Honduras See Caribbean Islands. Bulgaria Main article: Military history of Bulgaria during World War II Bulgarian soldiers enter a village in northern Greece, April 1941. Bulgaria gave up neutrality and became a German ally, signing the Tripartite Pact on 1 March 1941. Their main contribution was transit rights for German units involved against Yugoslavia and Greece. Bulgaria occupied portions of Greece and Yugoslavia to recreate the 19th-century boundaries of Greater Bulgaria, but it did not participate in the Invasion of the Soviet Union. After the Communist-dominated Bulgarian coup d’état of 1944 of 9 September, the Bulgarian government declared war on Germany. Bulgarian armies attacked the German positions in Yugoslavia. An armistice was signed with the Allies in Moscow on 28 October 1944. After the Nazis fled Yugoslav territory, the Bulgarian Army continued its offensive in Hungary and Austria. Bulgaria’s participation in World War II ended when its soldiers met British troops in Klagenfurt, Austria in May 1945. Burkina Faso See French West Africa. Burma (Myanmar) Main articles: Burma Campaign, Japanese occupation of Burma, and History of Myanmar Refugees flee Burma along the Prome Road from Rangoon to Mandalay and eventually on to India, January 1942 Burma was separated from British India in 1937 as a Crown Colony with a constitutional government. The colony was important for sending supplies to China via the Burma Road, which was completed in 1938. Nevertheless, it was left lightly defended at the outbreak of World War II: the British considered it a backwater and unlikely target of attack.[64] Japan began its conquest of Burma with small raids in December 1941, launching a full invasion the following January. Japan held most of the country by April and ceded the Shan states to its ally Thailand. Many Burmese hoped to gain support of the Japanese in expelling the British, so that Burma could become independent.[65][66] Japan had already trained the Thirty Comrades, who now formed the nucleus of the Burma Independence Army. Japan declared the colony independent as the State of Burma on 1 August 1943. A puppet government led by Ba Maw was installed. However, many Burmese began to believe the Japanese had no intention of giving them real independence.[65][66] Aung San and other nationalist leaders formed the Anti-Fascist Organisation in August 1944, which asked the United Kingdom to form a coalition with the other Allies against the Japanese. Allied forces launched offensives into Burma beginning in late 1944. They captured Rangoon following the Battle of Elephant Point in May 1945. Subsequently, negotiations began between the Burmese and the British for independence. Under Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians died.[65][66] Burundi See Ruanda-Urundi. Cambodia See Indochina. Cameroon See French Equatorial Africa. Canada Main article: Canada in World War II Propaganda Poster created by the Canadian Wartime Information Board, 1942. At the time of World War II, Newfoundland, including Labrador, was not part of Canada. See Newfoundland section. On 10 September 1939, Canada likewise declared war on Germany,[67] this was the beginning of Canada’s participation in the largest combined national effort in its history. Canada’s military was active mainly in Italy,[68] Northwestern Europe,[69] and the North Atlantic. Over the course of the war, 1.1 million Canadians served in the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Of these more than 45,000 lost their lives and another 54,000 were wounded.[70] The financial cost was $21,786,077,519.13, between the 1939 and 1950 fiscal years.[71] By the end of the War, Canada had the world’s fourth largest air force,[72] and third largest navy.[73] As well, the Canadian Merchant Navy completed over 25,000 voyages across the Atlantic.[74] Many Allied pilots trained in Canada during the war. Canadians also served in the militaries of various Allied countries. Canadian forces deployed to the United Kingdom in 1939. One corps fought in the Italian campaign while the other fought in Northwest Europe beginning with the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944, invading Juno Beach. The 1st Canadian Army ended the war on German soil with five Canadian divisions and a host of allied formations under direct command. During the war, Canada was subject to direct attack in the Battle of the St. Lawrence, and in the shelling of a lighthouse at Estevan Point in British Columbia. The war had significant cultural, political and economic effects on Canada, including the conscription crisis. However, the war effort not only strengthened the Canadian economy but further established Canada as a major actor on the world stage.[75] Caribbean Islands Main articles: History of the Caribbean and Battle of the Caribbean Over the course of World War II, the United States assumed Britain’s defense responsibilities in the Caribbean. In September 1940, the two countries agreed to the Lend-Lease Agreement (also called the Bases-for-Destroyers Agreement). It involved the loan of American destroyers in return for leasing, rent free for ninety-nine years, eleven naval and air bases on British territory, including the Bahamas, Jamaica, Antigua, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, British Guiana, and Bermuda, as well as Newfoundland. The eastern Caribbean became the forward edge of American defense strategy, formalized in the Panama Declaration of 1939. American strategists called the West Indies as “the bulwark that we watch.”[76] More than 50 percent of the supplies sent to Europe and Africa from the United States were shipped from ports in the Gulf of Mexico and passed through the Caribbean. One year after the Pearl Harbor attack, the United States Caribbean Defense Command reached a total of 119,000 personnel, half of them stationed in Panama to protect the canal from an anticipated Japanese attack. Meanwhile, the German Kriegsmarine inflicted massive damage on shipping in the Caribbean in 1942. By the end of that year, U-boats operating in the Caribbean had sunk 336 ships, at least half of which were oil tankers.[76] Parts of the Caribbean had been colonized by countries that now came under Axis occupation. Aruba and Curaçao remained loyal to the Dutch government-in-exile, but because they housed valuable refineries that processed Venezuelan petroleum, they were placed under British protection. Both islands were subjected to German attacks in Operation Neuland. In 1942 they were transferred to the United States, which had also stationed troops in Surinam in 1941 to secure its bauxite mines.[77] Martinique and Guadeloupe came under the control of Vichy France. American and British pressure ensured that several French ships, including its only aircraft carrier, Béarn, remained interned at Martinique.[78] Thousands of refugees fled, many going to Dominica, while an anti-Vichy resistance movement grew.[77] The islands, along with French Guiana, switched to Free France in 1943. See also this article’s sections on Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, the Bahamas, and Puerto Rico. Central African Republic See French Equatorial Africa. Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Main article: Ceylon in World War II Ceylon (now known as Sri Lanka), was a British colony and a major Allied naval base. On 5 April 1942, over 300 aircraft from Japanese carriers bombed the island. Winston Churchill called it “the most dangerous moment” of World War II, because the Japanese wished to replicate a grander success of the attack at Pearl Harbor. British ships, however, were moved to Addu Atoll, Maldives Islands. Nevertheless, the British lost an aircraft carrier, two cruisers, and two destroyers, while the Royal Air Force squadrons on Ceylon suffered severe losses. The Ceylon Garrison Artillery Regiment was stationed on Horsburgh Island in the Cocos Islands, to defend it from Japanese attack. However, the regiment mutinied on the night of 8 May 1942, intending to hand the islands over to the Japanese. The mutiny was suppressed and three of the Ceylonese soldiers were executed. Following the Cocos Islands Mutiny, no Ceylonese combat unit was deployed in front-line combat, although Supply & Transport Corps troops were used in rear areas in the Middle East. The defences of Sri Lanka were beefed up to three Allied army divisions because the island was strategically important, as a producer of rubber. Ceylonese in Japanese-occupied Malaya and Singapore were recruited by the Japanese for the Lanka Regiment of the Indian National Army, to fight against the Allies. They never actually saw action. Chad Further information: § French Equatorial Africa, and History of Chad Chile Chilean Carabineros open fire on Nacistas occupying the Seguro Obrero building, 5 September 1938. Main articles: History of Chile, Operation Bolívar, List of wars involving Chile, and Latin America during World War II Chile declared its neutrality upon the outbreak of war in Europe, having close trading links with Germany. Later in the war, however, Chile actively distanced itself from the Axis powers, and the Chilean government took steps to dismiss pro-German military officers. An attempted Nazi-backed coup in September 1938 turned most of the Chilean population against the German community within Chile. Following the sinking of the Toltén by a Nazi submarine off the coast of New Jersey and anti-German demonstrations in Chile,[79] relations with Axis countries were broken on January 20, 1943. Throughout the duration of the war, Chilean naval presence around Easter Island was strengthened to ward-off a feared Japanese attack (as the Japanese had territorial ambitions for all the islands of Polynesia to be under their rule), and bolstered defensive capabilities at the vital harbors of Antofagasta, Coquimbo, Valparaíso and Talcahuano. Chilean merchant naval ships also aided Peruvian, Colombian and Cuban ships in patrolling the area around the Panama Canal Zone during the Battle of the Caribbean. From 1943 to 1945, the Chilean prison camp of Pisagua became the site of wartime internment for citizens of enemy nations. Chile eventually declared war on Japan on April 13, 1945, becoming the last country in Latin America to do so. [80] In mid-2017, newly declassified documents revealed that Chile’s Investigative Police Units had stopped a Nazi spy ring’s plot to bomb Northern Chilean copper mines and blow up the Panama Canal.[81] China Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong meet in Chongqing, 1945. The Republic of China had been fighting Japan intermittently since the 1931 Mukden Incident, when Japan annexed Manchuria. On 7 July 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge Incident led the two countries to full-scale war. With this and civil conflict between the Kuomintang (KMT, Chinese Nationalist Party) and the Chinese Communist Party, the Chinese Nationalist Government’s full attention was within its borders. However, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek still managed to send troops to Britain’s aid in Burma, in early 1942. More than 1.5 million Japanese military personnel were bogged down in China with casualties estimated at 1.1–1.9 million. At the start of the war, the Chinese army had 2.6 million soldiers; by end of the war it had grown to 5.7 million (excluding communist soldiers). The war cooled China’s formerly warm relations with Germany (see Sino-German cooperation), and following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, China formally joined the Allies and declared war on Germany on 9 December 1941. Many of China’s urban centers, industrial resources, and coastal regions were occupied by Japan for most of the war. China suffered a large death toll from the war, both military and civilian. The Chinese Nationalist army suffered some 3.2 million casualties, and 17 million civilians died in the crossfire. After the war, China gained one of the permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council.[82] Although the Nationalists and Communists had cooperated to oppose the Japanese, once the war was over the Chinese Civil War erupted once again. The Nationalist government was defeated by the Communists in 1949 and retreated to Taiwan, while the communist People’s Republic of China was established on the mainland. Colombia Main articles: Colombia during World War II and Latin America during World War II The destroyer ARC Caldas in the 1940s After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Colombia broke diplomatic relations with the Axis powers. Colombia provided the Allies with petroleum products. In 1943, the German submarine U-505 destroyed a Colombian schooner, which caused Colombia to declare a “status of belligerency” against Germany on 26 November 1943.[83] The German ambassador left the country, and measures of control were implemented, including the internment of German citizens in designated areas. Photographs and reconnaissance airplanes belonging to the Colombian-German company Scadta, which used to take aerial shots of Colombian and German cities, were also handed to the United States. The Colombian Navy assisted in patrolling the waters near the Panama Canal Zone and participated in the Battle of the Caribbean. The only notable engagement occurred in 1944: the destroyer ARC Caldas attacked the German submarine U-154, which faked its own destruction in order to escape.[84] Comoros See History of the Comoros#French Comoros. Costa Rica Main articles: History of Costa Rica and Latin America during World War II Left-wing reformist President Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia was an ally of Franklin Roosevelt and hostile to Nazism. In 1940, it was reported that Calderón and Roosevelt had agreed to the construction of an American base on Cocos Island, Costa Rica’s territory in the Pacific; however, the United States ultimately decided on a base in the Galápagos instead. Costa Rica joined the Allies on 8 December 1941, declaring war on Japan the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and on Germany and Italy shortly afterwards. While Costa Rica’s small army of 500 men could not contribute directly to the fighting, Calderón’s administration introduced wartime measures against people from Axis nations in the country, including property seizure and internment. Targets included Germans, Italians, and Spaniards, the last of whom were viewed as franquistas sympathetic to fascism.[85] Croatia See Yugoslavia and Independent State of Croatia. Cuba Main articles: Cuba during World War II and Latin America during World War II With Morro Castle in the background, the USS Texas sails into Havana Harbor, February 1940. President Federico Laredo Brú led Cuba when war broke out in Europe, though real power belonged to Fulgencio Batista as Chief of Staff of the army.[86] In 1940, Laredo Brú infamously denied entry to 900 Jewish refugees who arrived in Havana aboard the German oceanliner MS St. Louis. After both the United States and Canada likewise refused to accept the refugees, they returned to Europe, where many were eventually murdered in the Holocaust.[87] Batista became president in his own right following the election of 1940. He cooperated with the United States as it moved closer to war against the Axis. Cuba declared war on Japan on 8 December 1941, and on Germany and Italy on 11 December.[88] Cuba was an important participant in the Battle of the Caribbean and its navy gained a reputation for skill and efficiency. The navy escorted hundreds of Allied ships through hostile waters, flew thousands of hours on convoy and patrol duty, and rescued over 200 victims of German U-Boat attacks from the sea. Six Cuban merchant ships were sunk by U-boats, taking the lives of around eighty sailors. On 15 May 1943, a squadron of Cuban submarine chasers sank the German submarine U-176 near Cayo Blanquizal.[89] Cuba received millions of dollars in American military aid through the Lend-Lease program, which included air bases, aircraft, weapons, and training.[88] The United States naval station at Guantanamo Bay also served as a base for convoys passing between the mainland United States and the Panama Canal or other points in the Caribbean.[90] Cyprus Main article: Cyprus Regiment The Cyprus Regiment was founded on 12 April 1940, and made part of the British Army structure. It was mostly volunteers from the Greek and Turkish Cypriot inhabitants of Cyprus, but also included other Commonwealth nationalities. About 30,000 Cypriots served in the Regiment. It included Infantry, Mechanical, Transport, and Pack Transport Companies. Cypriot mule drivers were the first colonial troops sent to the Western Front. They served in France, Ethiopia and Italy carrying equipment to areas inaccessible to vehicles. The regiment served at Dunkirk, in the Greek Campaign (Battle of Greece), North Africa (Operation Compass), France, the Middle East and Italy. In the post war years and prior to its disbandment, the regiment served in Cyprus and the Middle East, including Palestine in 1945–1948. The Regiment was disbanded on 31 March 1950. Czech Republic See Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia Main article: German occupation of Czechoslovakia Residents of Prague greet Soviet Marshal Ivan Konev, 1945. Czechoslovakia was dismembered starting with the Munich Agreement and by the First Vienna Award in 1938. As a result, the Sudetenland became part of Germany, Zaolzie was annexed by Poland, and southern Czechoslovakia became part of Hungary. Later on, the newly separated Slovak Republic, a Nazi-dependent puppet regime led by Roman Catholic priest Jozef Tiso was set up, while the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied and annexed by Hungary. The next day the Czech part of the country became the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia under state-President Emil Hácha. From 1940, a government-in-exile in London under former Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš was recognized as an Allied power. In April 1945, the Red Army defeated the Germans and ousted Tiso’s government. Slovak Republic (Slovakia) The newly founded Slovak Republic led by Jozef Tiso was proclaimed on March 14, 1939, allying with Nazi Germany and its armed forces participated in war against Poland and Soviet Union. Slovakia adopted Nazi antisemitic policy and paid Germany for deportation of its Jews. Zaolzie was annexed by Germany following the Invasion of Poland, the Slovak National Uprising, commenced in August 1944 was suppressed by German forces at the end of October; partisans, however, continued fighting in the mountains until the war’s end. In April 1945, the Red Army defeated the Germans and ousted Tiso’s government, and restored the Czechoslovak state.[83] Danzig Main article: Free City of Danzig Refugees flee Danzig ahead of the Soviet advance, February 1945. The Free City of Danzig, a semi-autonomous city-state under League of Nations protection, was predominantly German and
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